Designing Experiments Using the Scientific Method

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The Man Who Shocked the World: The Life and Legacy of Stanley Milgram. Almost everyone who has tried Experiment One says it reminds them if sweet puff corn cereal. An example that is often used in teaching laboratories is a controlled.

Retrieved April 24, 2015. Archived from on December 7, 2008. As reported by Perry in her 2012 book Behind the Shock Machine, some of the participants experienced long-lasting psychological effects, possibly due to the lack of proper debriefing by the experimenter. Researchers attempt to reduce the biases of observational studies with complicated statistical methods such as methods, which require large populations of subjects and extensive information on covariates.

Experiments

The experimenter E orders the teacher T , the subject of the experiment, to give what the latter believes are painful electric shocks to a learner L , who is actually an actor and. The subject is led to believe that for each wrong answer, the learner was receiving actual electric shocks, though in reality there were no such punishments. Being separated from the subject, the confederate set up a tape recorder integrated with the electro-shock generator, which played pre-recorded sounds for each shock level. The Milgram experiment on obedience to authority figures was a series of conducted by psychologist. They measured the willingness of study participants, men from a diverse range of occupations with varying levels of education, to an who instructed them to perform acts conflicting with their personal. The experiment found, unexpectedly, that a very high proportion of men would fully obey the instructions, albeit reluctantly. Milgram first described his in a 1963 article in the and later discussed his findings in greater depth in his 1974 book,. The experiments began in July 1961, in the basement of Linsly-Chittenden Hall at Yale University, three months after the start of the trial of German in. Could we call them all accomplices? The subject and the actor arrived at the session together. Also, he always clarified that the payment for their participation in the experiment was secured regardless of its development. The subject and actor drew slips of paper to determine their roles. Next, the teacher and learner were taken into an adjacent room where the learner was strapped into what appeared to be an electric chair. The experimenter told the participants this was to ensure that the learner would not escape. In one version of the experiment, the confederate was sure to mention to the participant that he had a. At some point prior to the actual test, the teacher was given a sample from the electroshock generator in order to experience firsthand what the shock that the learner would supposedly receive during the experiment would feel like. The teacher and learner were then separated, so that they could communicate but not see each other. The teacher was then given a list of word pairs that he was to teach the learner. The teacher began by reading the list of word pairs to the learner. The teacher would then read the first word of each pair and read four possible answers. The learner would press a button to indicate his response. If the answer was incorrect, the teacher would administer a shock to the learner, with the voltage increasing in 15- increments for each wrong answer. If correct, the teacher would read the next word pair. The subjects believed that for each wrong answer, the learner was receiving actual shocks. In reality, there were no shocks. After the learner was separated from the teacher, the learner set up a tape recorder integrated with the electroshock generator, which played prerecorded sounds for each shock level. As the voltage of the fake shocks increased, the learner yelled and protested louder, and later banged repeatedly on the wall that separated him from the teacher. When the highest voltages were reached, the learner fell silent. If at any time the teacher indicated a desire to halt the experiment, the experimenter was instructed to give specific verbal prods. If the subject still wished to stop after all four successive verbal prods, the experiment was halted. Otherwise, it was halted after the subject had given the maximum 450-volt shock three times in succession. The experimenter also had prods to use if the teacher made specific comments. All of the poll respondents believed that only a very small fraction of teachers the range was from zero to 3 out of 100, with an average of 1. Milgram also informally polled his colleagues and found that they, too, believed very few subjects would progress beyond a very strong shock. They predicted that by the 300-volt shock, when the victim refuses to answer, only 3. Subjects were uncomfortable doing so, and displayed varying degrees of tension and stress. These signs included sweating, trembling, stuttering, biting their lips, groaning, digging their fingernails into their skin, and some were even having nervous laughing fits or seizures. Every participant paused the experiment at least once to question it. Most continued after being assured by the experimenter. Some said they would refund the money they were paid for participating. I set up a simple experiment at Yale University to test how much an ordinary citizen would inflict on another person simply because he was ordered to by an experimental scientist. The extreme willingness of adults to go to almost any lengths on the command of an authority constitutes the chief finding of the study and the fact most urgently demanding explanation. Ordinary people, simply doing their jobs, and without any particular hostility on their part, can become agents in a terrible destructive process. Moreover, even when the destructive effects of their work become patently clear, and they are asked to carry out actions incompatible with fundamental standards of morality, relatively few people have the resources needed to resist authority. The original Simulated Shock Generator and Event Recorder, or shock box, is located in the. Later, Milgram and other psychologists performed variations of the experiment throughout the world, with similar results. Milgram later investigated the effect of the experiment's locale on obedience levels by holding an experiment in an unregistered, backstreet office in a bustling city, as opposed to at Yale, a respectable university. There were also variations tested involving groups. He found that while the percentage of participants who are prepared to inflict fatal voltages ranged from 28% to 91%, there was no significant trend over time and the average percentage for US studies 61% was close to the one for non-US studies 66%. The participants who refused to administer the final shocks neither insisted that the experiment be terminated, nor left the room to check the health of the victim without requesting permission to leave, as per Milgram's notes and recollections, when fellow psychologist asked him about that point. Milgram created a documentary film titled Obedience showing the experiment and its results. He also produced a series of five social psychology films, some of which dealt with his experiments. Ethics The Milgram Shock Experiment raised questions about the of scientific experimentation because of the extreme emotional stress and suffered by the participants. Some critics such as Gina Perry argued that participants were not properly debriefed. Many later wrote expressing thanks. Milgram repeatedly received offers of assistance and requests to join his staff from former participants. Six years later at the height of the , one of the participants in the experiment sent correspondence to Milgram, explaining why he was glad to have participated despite the stress: While I was a subject in 1964, though I believed that I was hurting someone, I was totally unaware of why I was doing so. Few people ever realize when they are acting according to their own beliefs and when they are meekly submitting to authority... To permit myself to be with the understanding that I am submitting to authority's demand to do something very wrong would make me frightened of myself... I am fully prepared to go to jail if I am not granted status. Indeed, it is the only course I could take to be faithful to what I believe. My only hope is that members of my board act equally according to their conscience... In his book , Milgram argued that the ethical criticism provoked by his experiments was because his findings were disturbing and revealed unwelcome truths about. Others have argued that the ethical debate has diverted attention from more serious problems with the experiment's. However, the Holocaust perpetrators were fully aware of their hands-on killing and maiming of the victims. On the other hand, the Holocaust perpetrators displayed an intense devaluation of the victims through a lifetime of personal development. Meanwhile, the Holocaust lasted for years with ample time for a moral assessment of all individuals and organizations involved. In the opinion of Thomas Blass—who is the author of a scholarly monograph on the experiment The Man Who Shocked The World published in 2004—the historical evidence pertaining to actions of the Holocaust perpetrators speaks louder than words: My own view is that Milgram's approach does not provide a fully adequate explanation of the Holocaust. While it may well account for the dutiful destructiveness of the dispassionate bureaucrat who may have shipped Jews to Auschwitz with the same degree of routinization as potatoes to Bremerhaven, it falls short when one tries to apply it to the more zealous, inventive, and hate-driven atrocities that also characterized the Holocaust. A subject who has neither ability nor expertise to make decisions, especially in a crisis, will leave decision making to the group and its hierarchy. The group is the person's behavioral model. In a 2006 experiment, a computerized was used in place of the learner receiving electrical shocks. Another explanation of Milgram's results invokes as the underlying cause. Hence, the underlying cause for the subjects' striking conduct could well be conceptual, and not the alleged 'capacity of man to abandon his humanity... Of the twelve participants, only three refused to continue to the end of the experiment. Speaking during the episode, social psychologist Clifford Stott discussed the influence that the idealism of scientific inquiry had on the volunteers. It's about what they believe science to be, that science is a positive product, it produces beneficial findings and knowledge to society that are helpful for society. So there's that sense of science is providing some kind of system for good. Based on an examination of Milgram's archive, in a recent study, social psychologists , and Megan Birney, at the , discovered that people are less likely to follow the prods of an experimental leader when the prod resembles an order. However, when the prod stresses the importance of the experiment for science i. The researchers suggest the perspective of 'engaged followership': that people are not simply obeying the orders of a leader, but instead are willing to continue the experiment because of their desire to support the scientific goals of the leader and because of a lack of identification with the learner. Also a neuroscientific study supports this perspective, namely watching the learner receive electric shocks, does not activate brain regions involving empathic concerns. Milgram's variations In 1974 , Milgram describes nineteen variations of his experiment, some of which had not been previously reported. Several experiments varied the distance between the participant teacher and the learner. Generally, when the participant was physically closer to the learner, the participant's decreased. In the variation where the learner's physical immediacy was closest, where the participant had to hold the learner's arm onto a shock plate, 30 percent of participants completed the experiment. The participant's compliance also decreased if the experimenter was physically further away Experiments 1—4. For example, in Experiment 2, where participants received telephonic instructions from the experimenter, compliance decreased to 21 percent. Some participants deceived the experimenter by pretending to continue the experiment. In Experiment 8, an all-female contingent was used; previously, all participants had been men. Obedience did not significantly differ, though the women communicated experiencing higher levels of stress. In those conditions, obedience dropped to 47. Milgram also combined the effect of authority with that of. The behavior of the participants' peers strongly affected the results. In Experiment 17, when two additional teachers refused to comply, only 4 of 40 participants continued in the experiment. In that variation, 37 of 40 continued with the experiment. Replications A virtual replication of the experiment, with an serving as the learner Around the time of the release of Obedience to Authority in 1973—1974, a version of the experiment was conducted at in Australia. As reported by Perry in her 2012 book Behind the Shock Machine, some of the participants experienced long-lasting psychological effects, possibly due to the lack of proper debriefing by the experimenter. In 2002, the British artist created The Milgram Re-enactment, an exact reconstruction of parts of the original experiment, including the uniforms, lighting, and rooms used. An audience watched the four-hour performance through one-way glass windows. A video of this performance was first shown at the CCA Gallery in in 2002. A partial replication of the experiment was staged by British illusionist and broadcast on UK's in 2006. Another partial replication of the experiment was conducted by Jerry M. Burger in 2006 and broadcast on the Primetime series Basic Instincts. Burger found obedience rates virtually identical to those reported by Milgram in 1961—62, even while meeting current ethical regulations of informing participants. In addition, half the replication participants were female, and their rate of obedience was virtually identical to that of the male participants. Burger also included a condition in which participants first saw another participant refuse to continue. However, participants in this condition obeyed at the same rate as participants in the base condition. In the 2010 French documentary The Game of Death , researchers recreated the Milgram experiment with an added critique of by presenting the scenario as a pilot. The experiment was performed on on an episode airing April 25, 2010. The episode was hosted by , who produced results similar to the original Milgram experiment, though the highest-voltage punishment used was 165 volts, rather than 450 volts. Due to increasingly widespread knowledge of the experiment, recent replications of the procedure have had to ensure that participants were not previously aware of it. Their findings were similar to those of Milgram: half of the male subjects and all of the females obeyed throughout. Many subjects showed high levels of distress during the experiment, and some openly wept. In addition, Sheridan and King found that the duration for which the shock button was pressed decreased as the shocks got higher, meaning that for higher shock levels, subjects were more hesitant. This section needs additional citations for. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. It is distributed by. The movie is inspired by the and the subsequent investigation. The ongoing experiment is presented to the unsuspecting lawyer. You can keep the five bucks. Surridge has lost faith in humanity. Along with 's study in obedience, the documentary shows the study of and and the of. He later reenacts a version of the Milgram experiment on Det. The original Milgrim documentary film, Obedience, is playing on the TV in the scene. In addition, lines spoken by the vault's computer are near-verbatim lines from the experiment urging the player's compliance. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. April 4, 2015, at the. Journal of Applied Social Psychology. March 31, 2012, at the. Yale Alumni Publications, Inc. Retrieved April 24, 2015. Retrieved July 20, 2013. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Archived from PDF on March 7, 2016. Archived from on December 16, 2010. Abridged and adapted from Obedience to Authority. Accessed October 4, 2006. Retrieved October 25, 2016. Becoming Evil: How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and Mass Killing. Retrieved June 9, 2013. Archived from PDF file, direct download 733 KB on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 20 July 2013. Archived from on February 2, 2004. Behind the Shock Machine: the untold story of the notorious Milgram psychology experiments. Retrieved March 30, 2018. All Things Considered Interview. Archived from on February 5, 2013. Irrational Exuberance 2nd ed. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press. Retrieved May 8, 2013. Alexander; Reicher, Stephen D. Journal of Social Issues. Current Opinion in Psychology. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. April 30, 2009, at the. Archived from on 2016-03-04. Retrieved June 10, 2008. Retrieved December 21, 2008. Retrieved January 4, 2007. Retrieved October 19, 2010. Archived from on March 23, 2010. Retrieved March 18, 2010. Archived from on 2014-02-01. Retrieved April 17, 2014. Archived from PDF on January 27, 2018. Retrieved March 3, 2013. Accessed October 4, 2006. Archived from on April 27, 2007. Retrieved March 20, 2007. Retrieved January 30, 2015. The Man Who Shocked the World: The Life and Legacy of Stanley Milgram. Archived from on February 26, 2015. The obedience experiments: A case study of controversy in social science. Archived from on December 7, 2008. Includes an interview with one of Milgram's volunteers, and discusses modern interest in, and scepticism about, the experiment. Neophilologus: International Journal of Modern and Mediaeval Language and Literature. Archived from PDF on May 17, 2013. The milgram experiment full documentary film on. Includes original audio recordings of the experiment.

Experiments might be categorized according to a number of dimensions, depending upon professional norms and standards in different fields of study. Retrieved 20 July 2013. Subjects were uncomfortable doing so, and displayed varying degrees of tension and stress. There are various experiment one in experimental practice in each of the. I do agree with you on his ability being only situationally useful. Burger also included a condition in which participants first saw another sin refuse to continue.